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A third project, the functional project, which Woodward outlines and defends in (Woodward 2014), asks what kind of functional role causal concepts play in our cognitive architecture and what purposes and goals causal cognition can serve. Norton’s demand that any causal principle needs to be a universal principle may be on a stronger footing within the metaphysical project and in fact Norton himself calls his argument "the fundamentalist’s dilemma": If a metaphysical account of causation is committed to the principle "same cause-same effect" or even just to a probabilistic version of this principle, then the existence of genuine indeterminism in physics of the kind discussed by Norton would pose a serious threat to that account. While there are obvious points of contact among these projects and a philosophical account may contribute to more than one project simultaneously, the three projects have distinctly different core aims and are characterized by different methodologies. The case for the existence of God is a cumulative one. Humean accounts deny the existence of fundamental modalities and maintain that fundamentally the universe is composed of a distribution of categorical properties and relations instantiated by localized entities-what David Lewis called the "Humean mosaic" (Lewis 1973; Loewer 2012). On the Humean view, all true modal claims, including causal claims, are grounded in non-modal features of the mosaic.

Even though Humeans deny that modal properties, including causal properties, are part of the world’s fundamental ontology, they may allow for the existence of non-fundamental causal facts that are reducible to fundamental physical properties. But there are many other sorts of economics in which human and planetary justice matter. Coupled with the later introduction of "rational expectations" - in which actors have perfect foresight and complete information - this enabled economics to ignore space and time. We don’t have a solid theoretical understanding of quark matter, but most models predict that quark stars would be slightly smaller than neutron stars. Then again it might be the case that quark stars are unstable. There are three options: (i) either the truth-makers of causal claims are physical features of the world, (ii) or they supervene on physical features of the world, (iii) or they are non-physical features of the world that do not supervene on physical features of the world.

Now in real markets there is no auctioneer; buying and selling is continuous, prices actually emerge from the dynamic interaction of different agents who don’t have perfect knowledge and often use rules of thumb or customs to guide their decisions. Stripped down classical mechanics still rules the roost. And elsewhere you quote Seth Lloyd saying something similar about classical versus quantum computations: "A classical computation is like a solo voice - one line of pure tones succeeding each other. In fact, Green’s functions provide "a primary locus for causal claims within physics texts" (Smith 2013: 667). The causal significance of the Green function formalism has been challenged, however, by invoking a version of the time-asymmetry challenge. For example, the Green’s function associated with the wave equation describes the circular ripples on a pond’s surface after a small pebble was dropped in. Unlike the descriptive project, the functional project possesses a methodological or normative dimension, evaluating the usefulness of causal concepts and of types of causal reasoning. In taking existing concepts of causation as its starting point the functional project concerning causation engages primarily in what David Chalmers calls "re-engineering" rather than "de novo engineering" (Chalmers 2018, see Other Internet Resources).

The dominant cause challenge can be raised both as part of the descriptive project and as part of the functional project. This purely fictive being, analogous to Maxwell’s Demon in physics, "groped" his way to a solution by repeatedly calling out prices, checking the resultant demands and supplies until prices that will clear the market are found - only then can trading take place. Things outside this circle, such as finite energy or resources, the environment or even other species, either don’t exist or are treated as "externalities" and very often not even "priced". It also tend to ignore most important aspects of scale, energy use, resource limits, how aggregate markets are not scaled up individual demand and supply curves, and how economic actors actually interact, adapt, behave and choose. For the neo-Russellian the problem is that we seem to be able to provide successful causal explanations of phenomena even when the complete initial data that are part of the ideal explanatory text are in principle inaccessible to us. Theism is able to explain the most general phenomena of science and more particular historical facts, but it is also able to explain our own individual religious experiences. If physicists and chemists understood the properties of matter and energy, then the empirical evidence shouldn’t exist - none of it - any more than ghosts or fairies.

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